Cross/Crucifixion Types of Crosses
A cross was an upright wooden beam or post on which victims were either tied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. A cross could have several different shapes. The earliest was not a cross at all but a simple stake or pole on which victims were impaled. This simple stake evolved over time into more elaborate shapes with the addition of a crossbeam that was secured to the upright stake. The Latin cross was shaped like a “t” and was the most common type used by the Romans. Jesus was probably crucified on a Latin cross allowing for a convenient place for the sign to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37). The St. Anthony’s cross was shaped like a “T” where the crossbeam was affixed at the top of the upright beam. The St. Andrew’s cross was shaped like an “X” having a crisscross pattern. Tradition holds that the apostle Peter was crucified upside down on this type of cross. The Greek cross was shaped like a “+” having the crossbeam in the center.
Crucifixion in Ancient Times
Crucifixion was widely used as a method of execution by many in ancient times including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Persians, Medes, and Greeks. Historically, crucifixion’s barbaric predecessor was impalement. Victims were often beheaded first and their lifeless bodies were then forced onto a large stake or spike (Gen. 40:19; 1 Sam. 31:9-10). Impalement was originally more about triumph and exposure than execution per se (Deut. 21:22-23; Jos. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12; 21:9-10). However, the Assyrians impaled their enemies by sticking their living bodies onto pointed stakes thus utilizing impalement as a method of execution. The book of Esther probably reflects the practice of implement in the Persian period by describing how the king’s officials were “hanged” (Esther 2:23; 5:14). The NIV adds “on a gallows” but such a “hangman’s noose” was not practiced in Persia during this period. Impalement became a common form of execution.
Impalement as a means of execution eventually gave way to crucifixion. Crucifixion was especially prized by the Phoenicians whose normal methods of execution which included drowning, placing a victim in boiling oil, impalement, stoning, and burning were seen as too quick and easy. Victims did not get to suffer long enough so crucifixion was a more severe form of execution. The Greeks also crucified victims on a stake or a cross. Alexander the Great crucified 2000 inhabitants of Tyre along the shoreline when he captured the city in 332 B.C.
There is no evidence that ancient Israel fastened people to a stake or a cross as a method of execution. Instead, stoning was the preferred method of execution in Israel and was commanded by the Law (Lev. 20:2; Deut. 22:24). The Law did, however, permit the public display of an offender’s body “on a tree” after being executed (Deut. 21:22). The same expression is used in the book of Acts to describe Jesus’ crucifixion (Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29). In contrast to pagan nations who would leave a dead body hanging on a cross until the body either rotted away or was devoured by vultures, Israel was commanded to take down the body not letting it remain on the tree overnight (Deut. 21:23). This explains why the Jews were so adamant that Jesus’ body be taken down before the Sabbath Day commenced at sunset (John 19:31). Being hung on a tree was especially abhorrent to Israel since it reflected God’s curse upon the offender (Deut. 21:23). Jesus was accursed by God as he hung on the cross bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).
Crucifixion in NT Times
Not long before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish ruler Alexander Jannaeus crucified about 800 Pharisees who opposed him in 86 B.C. This gruesome event was out of character for the Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as well as by the later Jewish historian Josephus. It was the Romans, however, who perfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romans called crucifixion the “slaves’ punishment” since it was intended for the lowest of society. It became the preferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion, spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common in NT times and extended well into the fourth century A.D. The emperor Constantine converted to Christianity in A.D. 312 and abolished crucifixion altogether. From here on, the cross became a symbol of Christian sacrifice instead of a barbarous method of torture and execution.
Roman Crucifixion
Crucifixion was a barbaric method of torture and execution where a victim was either nailed or tied to a wooden cross and left to die a long, agonizing death. It was often reserved for the most offensive criminals such as thieves (Matt. 27:38), murderers, insurrectionists (Mark 15:7), and other political rebels. Disobedient slaves were commonly crucified. Crucifixion was so demeaning that Roman citizens were exempt and could only be crucified by direct decree of the emperor. Crucifixion was also used as a triumphant sign in times of war as victors demonstrated their conquests by hoisting their enemies upon crosses for all to see. It was viewed as a public symbol of strength and intimidation. Adding insult to injury, victims were stripped and crucified alongside busy roads and in public places where onlookers could gaze in horror.
Criminals were often flogged severely before crucifixion in a pseudo-compassionate effort to speed up the death process once nailed to the cross (John 19:1). The victim was stripped, tied to a post, and then brutally beaten by several Roman torturers using whips with sharp pieces of bone or metal at the ends. Such floggings were said to leave the victim’s bones and entrails exposed. The torturers did not stop until they were either exhausted themselves or called off by their commanding officers.
After the flogging the offender was then forced to carry the crossbeam, often weighing 75-100 pounds, on his shoulders to the crucifixion site (John 19:17). The main upright beam, standing between 7-9 feet tall, remained at the site of crucifixion and was used repeatedly. The victim was then laid down with arms stretched out across the beam and usually tied into position. Once the victim’s arms were secured by ropes, a soldier searched for the “hollow spot” in the wrist located just above the flexion area near the carpel bones. The metacarpal bones of the palms were too weak to support the weight of the body on the cross, so the wrist was a stronger alternative. However, the use of ropes to support the arms made the choice of little consequence. Either location was acceptable. A hammer was then used to drive 5-inch nails through both wrists affixing the victim to the crossbeam. It was customary to offer the victim a narcotic cocktail to help ease the pain of crucifixion. Jesus refused this drink (Matt. 27:34; Mark 15:23). After the victim’s arms were nailed to the crossbeam it was hoisted up and secured to the upright post. This alone was very hard on the fatigued body of the victim who had already lost a considerable amount of blood. This quick, upward motion caused orthostatic hypotension – very low blood pressure caused by a rapid vertical shift in body position. The victim’s blood pressure would drop to half of normal while the pulse rate doubled. Victims frequently fainted due to the rush of blood away from the head during this upward motion. This motion is probably the imagery behind Jesus’ “lifted up” sayings (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32). Jesus was quite literally lifted up onto the cross.
Next came the nailing of the feet. The Romans had several different ways of nailing the feet to the cross. Roman soldiers were notorious for twisting and contorting victims into odd positions while nailing them to the cross. Sometimes a victim’s legs were stretched downward, feet crossed, and one nail driven through both. A support block was typically placed behind the victim to support the weight of the body on the cross. A heel bone of a crucified man named Yehohanan (John) was discovered in an ossuary north of Jerusalem in 1968. A single nail had been driven through the side of the heel. Either the body was twisted so that the nail was driven through both heels, the right above the left, or each heel was nailed to opposite sides of the upright beam causing the victim to straddle the cross. A piece of wood was held against the heel before the nail was driven in, to act as a washer, so preventing the foot from tearing free. The ossuary’s inscription describes Yehohanan as “the one hanged with knees apart.” Once nailed to the cross the victim often suffered for several hours, even days, exposed to the hot sun as well as the insults of those passing by on the busy road (Matt. 27:39; Mark 15:29; Luke 23:35; John 19:20). Extreme thirst was brought on by massive blood loss and exposure to the elements (John 19:28).
Because death could take several hours it was sometimes hastened by a crushing blow to the legs with a club. Victims were unable to push their bodies upward to gasp for air or to keep their blood circulating. This final blow to the legs also caused intense pain and was usually enough to throw the body into shock with death following soon after. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers approached to break his legs (John 19:32). This fulfilled what was written in the Scriptures: “Not one of his bones will be broken” (Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12; Ps. 34:20; John 19:36). Instead of breaking Jesus’ legs a soldier thrust a spear into his side which brought forth a sudden flow of blood and water indicating he was truly dead (John 19:34). This too was to fulfill Scripture: “They will look on the one they have pierced” (Zech. 12:10; John 19:37). Bodies were often left on the crosses to be eaten by scavenging birds such as vultures. The Jews demanded the body of Jesus and the two thieves crucified with him taken down before the Sabbath that began that evening.
Physical Death by Crucifixion
Death by crucifixion resulted from a combination of factors. The most obvious was massive blood loss. With the nails being driven through the extensive artery systems of the wrists and feet, the victim would lose a lot of blood as it drained out of the body. The severe flogging before being crucified also played a role and took its toll on the body. Blood loss also led to a depletion of oxygen supply to the vital tissues. Major organs failed due to lack of oxygenation. Another factor leading to death is suffocation or asphyxiation. The weight of the body hanging on the cross was too great for the tendons and muscles in the arms so that the victim was unable to hold himself up in order to take in deep breaths. The victim’s upper body continued to sink lower until the lungs became too compressed and unable to take in large volumes of air. Victims could force themselves upward to gasp air by using their legs, but this was extremely painful. This was another reason for breaking the legs – to keep the victim from pushing upward in order to breathe. The victim slowly suffocated for hours.
The ultimate cause of death was an eventual heart rupture due to massive blood loss and lack of oxygenation. As the pulse raced and blood pressure increased the heart eventually burst due to the stress. This helps explain the reference to the “sudden flow of “blood and water” (John 19:35). In the case of heart rupture, the right side of the heart still has some blood left in it while the sac that surround the heart, called the pericardium, fills with water. The soldier’s spear pierced this sac and the heart causing both blood and water to flow out.
The Meaning of Jesus’ Crucifixion
The OT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev. 17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar for the sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins of the world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatest atoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for a new covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). The cross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died “for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shame of the cross so that we may be reconciled to God by his shed blood (Heb 12:2; Col. 1:20).
Jesus also bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross. The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’s curse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’s curse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesus demonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by his obedience to death – even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8)! For Jesus the cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for a worthy cause. It was the pinnacle example of obedience and love in the Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and follow his example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ cross was a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Most of all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God who offered his Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John 4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus who willingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
Sources
Fletcher, Daniel. “Cross/Crucifixion.” Pages 382–85 in The Baker Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Edited by Tremper Longman, Peter Enns, and Mark Strauss. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2013.
Holy Bible, KJV